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On The Trail Of Nabonidus In Tayma
It’s been a couple of years since I first visited Tayma to look at Bir Haddaj, one of the largest wells on the Arabian Peninsula. And since that day, I’ve been fascinated with the fact that this is where the last Babylonian king came to live, two and a half thousand years ago.
The first written reference to Tayma comes in a cuneiform text from Ninurta-kudurri-usur, the 8th century BCE, the Governor of Suhu (modern day Middle Euphrates).
It tells of an attack on a caravan from Tayma and Saba, capturing many men and camels, along with wool, iron, and precious stones.
So Tayma has been a well-known trading oasis for many yearsm whilst regional powers were aware of Tayma in years gone by, it is relatively unknown today.
Situated in northwestern Saudi Arabia at the point where the ancient routes between Madinah and Dumah begins to cross the Nefud desert, it is a large oasis with a long history of settlement.
As the old trade and pilgrimage routes diminished after the advent of the motorcar and airplanes, it has not been used as a stopping point and is therefore non longer in the spotlight. For me this adds to its charm as it retains its traditional style and character.
The first written reference to Tayma comes in a cuneiform text from Ninurta-kudurri-usur, the 8th century BCE, the Governor of Suhu (modern day Middle Euphrates).
It tells of an attack on a caravan from Tayma and Saba, capturing many men and camels, along with wool, iron, and precious stones.
So Tayma has been a well-known trading oasis for many yearsm whilst regional powers were aware of Tayma in years gone by, it is relatively unknown today.
Situated in northwestern Saudi Arabia at the point where the ancient routes between Madinah and Dumah begins to cross the Nefud desert, it is a large oasis with a long history of settlement.
As the old trade and pilgrimage routes diminished after the advent of the motorcar and airplanes, it has not been used as a stopping point and is therefore non longer in the spotlight. For me this adds to its charm as it retains its traditional style and character.
Nabonidus is the most interesting of characters. Born in Harran (in modern-day Turkey) during the last years of the Assyrian Empire to a priestess who worshiped the moon god Sin, he had a fascinating start in life. Soon after he was born, the political landscape changed. The Assyrian kingdom was conquered, resulting in the birth of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.
His mother, Adad-guppi, was clearly a strong woman. She even had her own stele (a carved stone tablet), which implies she was of high status.
It mentions that she was born in the 20th year of the rule of the Assyrian King Ashurbanipal, and therefore must have been almost forty when Harran fell to Babylon. It is likely that she had already given birth to Nabonidus, so he would have had Nebuchadnezzar II as his king for most of his life, hearing of his victorious battles, expansion of the empire and glorious building projects.
She was the one who not only successfully survived a change in rulers but guided her son to be successful in his own right. We don’t know exactly how he became a member of the court as an adult, but he found himself close to the ruling elite, and eventually became king.
His mother, Adad-guppi, was clearly a strong woman. She even had her own stele (a carved stone tablet), which implies she was of high status.
It mentions that she was born in the 20th year of the rule of the Assyrian King Ashurbanipal, and therefore must have been almost forty when Harran fell to Babylon. It is likely that she had already given birth to Nabonidus, so he would have had Nebuchadnezzar II as his king for most of his life, hearing of his victorious battles, expansion of the empire and glorious building projects.
She was the one who not only successfully survived a change in rulers but guided her son to be successful in his own right. We don’t know exactly how he became a member of the court as an adult, but he found himself close to the ruling elite, and eventually became king.
Nabonidus not only conquered an important part of northern Arabia but is said to have stayed for 10 years without going back to Babylon.
I knew there must be more to this intriguing story…
I knew there must be more to this intriguing story…
To begin my journey of exploration, I visited the British Museum in London.
They have a wonderful collection of items from around the world including one of Nabonidus’ steles.
As I stood there in one of the upper galleries, looking at this beautifully carved stone tablet I had to pinch myself.
Here was Nabonidus himself, the man whose life has fascinated me and so many others for centuries.
They have a wonderful collection of items from around the world including one of Nabonidus’ steles.
As I stood there in one of the upper galleries, looking at this beautifully carved stone tablet I had to pinch myself.
Here was Nabonidus himself, the man whose life has fascinated me and so many others for centuries.
The stele shows a raised area of carving (a relief) that is the typical iconic imagery of Nabonidus. A tall figure dressed in traditional robes, pointed cap and beard, holding a staff.
Level with his head are the three divine celestial bodies he adored so much.
Closest to him is the crescent moon of Sin (pronounced as ‘seen’), the moon god, closely followed by the winged disk, Shamash (the sun god), and finally at the end is a star, representing Ishtar (goddess of love, beauty, fertility and war).
This stele is a departure from the traditional Babylonian exaltation of Marduk, as chief god in Babylon, which accords with Nabonidus’ supposed conflict with the priests.
Cuneiform script classically fills the panel below the 3 deities.
Level with his head are the three divine celestial bodies he adored so much.
Closest to him is the crescent moon of Sin (pronounced as ‘seen’), the moon god, closely followed by the winged disk, Shamash (the sun god), and finally at the end is a star, representing Ishtar (goddess of love, beauty, fertility and war).
This stele is a departure from the traditional Babylonian exaltation of Marduk, as chief god in Babylon, which accords with Nabonidus’ supposed conflict with the priests.
Cuneiform script classically fills the panel below the 3 deities.
Arriving back in Tayma again was a joy. The town is calm and gentle, the breeze flows through the top of the palm trees in a mesmerizing manner. Gardens radiate out from mud-brick walls that meander throughout the old town. It’s an ancient oasis where caravans would have stopped on their long journey along the Incense Road.
One can imagine traveling across the open flat expanse that surrounds Tayma, with the relentless sun beating down. The journey would have taken days and days from the nearest oasis, only broken up by the odd rock outcrop, but even these are few and far between in this area.
Walking around Tayma today it’s hard to imagine the magnitude of the journeys people took thousands of years ago. The oases weren’t just a place to stop, they were vital islands of survival, food, rest, trade and human interaction. They were melting pots of humanity, cultural and religious ideas, and traditions that would have formed the colourful and ever-changing backbone of the community.
I imagine the Incense Road as a tree, with wide roots spread across the Southern Arabian kingdoms of Saba, M’ain, Qataban and Hadhramaut. Up through the middle of Arabia grows the strong trunk which then opens into many branches leading to Yathrib (Madinah), Dadan (AlUla), Yadi, Faddak (AlHa’it), Hibra (Khaybar) and Tayma. They all interlink and spread far beyond into more oases, eventually leading to Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean, Egypt and the Levant.
One can imagine traveling across the open flat expanse that surrounds Tayma, with the relentless sun beating down. The journey would have taken days and days from the nearest oasis, only broken up by the odd rock outcrop, but even these are few and far between in this area.
Walking around Tayma today it’s hard to imagine the magnitude of the journeys people took thousands of years ago. The oases weren’t just a place to stop, they were vital islands of survival, food, rest, trade and human interaction. They were melting pots of humanity, cultural and religious ideas, and traditions that would have formed the colourful and ever-changing backbone of the community.
I imagine the Incense Road as a tree, with wide roots spread across the Southern Arabian kingdoms of Saba, M’ain, Qataban and Hadhramaut. Up through the middle of Arabia grows the strong trunk which then opens into many branches leading to Yathrib (Madinah), Dadan (AlUla), Yadi, Faddak (AlHa’it), Hibra (Khaybar) and Tayma. They all interlink and spread far beyond into more oases, eventually leading to Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean, Egypt and the Levant.
The Assyrian and Babylonian empires covered vast areas of Iran, Iraq, Turkey and Syria. Throughout all the years of their rule these oases listed above eluded their full control.
Admittedly they were vassal states, paying tribute and allegiance to the ruling king. But not until Nabonidus did they really become part of the Empire. It is easy to understand Nabonidus’ desire to conquer new areas and control the lucrative Arab oases whose lands the rich caravans travelled through.
But the reasons for his departure from Babylon and then extended stay in Tayma may be much more complicated than that.
The Harran steles together form one of many accounts of Nabonidus. Written as his own account, they tell of Sin being lord of all gods, along with receiving instructions in his dreams.
In addition, he mentions he kept roaming between all the oases for ten years.
Admittedly they were vassal states, paying tribute and allegiance to the ruling king. But not until Nabonidus did they really become part of the Empire. It is easy to understand Nabonidus’ desire to conquer new areas and control the lucrative Arab oases whose lands the rich caravans travelled through.
But the reasons for his departure from Babylon and then extended stay in Tayma may be much more complicated than that.
The Harran steles together form one of many accounts of Nabonidus. Written as his own account, they tell of Sin being lord of all gods, along with receiving instructions in his dreams.
In addition, he mentions he kept roaming between all the oases for ten years.
The Verse Account of Nabonidus (written about him by the Persians who conquered his lands) tells of him going to Tayma, killing the local king, slaughtering the herds, adorning the city and building a palace just like in Babylon.
But up until this day, no evidence has been found for such a grand palace in Tayma.
But up until this day, no evidence has been found for such a grand palace in Tayma.
The Tayma stone (stele) found in 1876 (now in the Louvre Museum in Paris) and written in Aramaic, lists the gods of Tayma, in the 6th century BCE: among them Salm of Mahram and Salm of Hagam.
Talk to anyone in Tayma and they know about their very famous local god Salm.
Along the edge of the large stone tablet is a carved image of what is thought to be Nabonidus, under which is a priest adorning a bull on a pedestal.
Talk to anyone in Tayma and they know about their very famous local god Salm.
Along the edge of the large stone tablet is a carved image of what is thought to be Nabonidus, under which is a priest adorning a bull on a pedestal.
Later in 1979 in AlHamra (what is now the called the Ancient Temple of Salm), archaeologists found two more important discoveries, the AlHamra stele and cube. The stele tells of a new temple dedicated to Salm.
The cube has images on two sides. In the centre of one side is a bull with a circular disc between its horns. It is presented on a pedestal, with a priest in adoration, and an incense burner.
Very interesting to me is the addition of two of Nabonidus’ divine symbols - the moon and the winged disc.
Testament to the historical importance of Tayma, in the depths of the desert sits the cartouche of Rameses III. It is located in an area where many people travelled in the past.
Along one section of this route there are numerous rock inscriptions. When visiting I saw a huge rock drawing of Salm.
He can be recognized by his bull-like face and large horns curving up from the top of his head. There are many carved images of Salm in the area, some have a moon and some a sun between the horns.
The cube has images on two sides. In the centre of one side is a bull with a circular disc between its horns. It is presented on a pedestal, with a priest in adoration, and an incense burner.
Very interesting to me is the addition of two of Nabonidus’ divine symbols - the moon and the winged disc.
Testament to the historical importance of Tayma, in the depths of the desert sits the cartouche of Rameses III. It is located in an area where many people travelled in the past.
Along one section of this route there are numerous rock inscriptions. When visiting I saw a huge rock drawing of Salm.
He can be recognized by his bull-like face and large horns curving up from the top of his head. There are many carved images of Salm in the area, some have a moon and some a sun between the horns.
This particular one also has some lines and crosses either side. I didn’t take much notice to start with, but something kept making me go back to them…. What was it?
Then when I was looking at a photo of the stone cube, it came to me. I know what those lines are! I believe they may be the priest and incense burner found either side of the bull.
I tried transposing them and yes, they were an exact fit! Now I was starting to feel like I was joining the dots.
The fact that above this scene on the cube are Nabonidus’ special symbols - the winged disc and his precious moon (Sin), is very interesting.
What else can I find in or near Tayma to help me understand Nabonidus and his stay in the area?
Then when I was looking at a photo of the stone cube, it came to me. I know what those lines are! I believe they may be the priest and incense burner found either side of the bull.
I tried transposing them and yes, they were an exact fit! Now I was starting to feel like I was joining the dots.
The fact that above this scene on the cube are Nabonidus’ special symbols - the winged disc and his precious moon (Sin), is very interesting.
What else can I find in or near Tayma to help me understand Nabonidus and his stay in the area?
Being out in the desert is such a joy, especially around Tayma. The area is flat, punctuated by the odd rock formation and, during the winter, covered in white flowers. It’s here that I visited the next Nabonidus clue.
Carved into a large rock is the image of a Babylonian warrior on horseback. The horse’s front legs are slightly raised giving the impression of movement, galloping through the desert. Nearby the Thamudic words mention Malik Babl, or King of Babylon.
Visiting in the morning was perfect, as the sun’s rays had not yet reached this side of the rock.
Even though there is only one, it gives the impression of a leader travelling through the desert from place to place.
Carved into a large rock is the image of a Babylonian warrior on horseback. The horse’s front legs are slightly raised giving the impression of movement, galloping through the desert. Nearby the Thamudic words mention Malik Babl, or King of Babylon.
Visiting in the morning was perfect, as the sun’s rays had not yet reached this side of the rock.
Even though there is only one, it gives the impression of a leader travelling through the desert from place to place.
There is only one other oasis (of those that Nabonidus is said to have conquered), that has any direct evidence of his being there and that is Faddak, modern day AlHa’it.
I have visited AlUla and Khaybar on numerous occasions, but this was a first for me. The journey from Tayma in modern times can take 4-5 hrs, depending on which route, but could have taken weeks, thousands of years ago.
The road covers flat open desert, crosses black lava fields and traverses’ mountains.
The oases town of AlHa’it is not unlike Khaybar in many respects, with palm gardens circled by mud brick walls, surrounded by towering groups of buildings.
Unlike other oases in the area though, it seems it was a centre of religious worship.
I have visited AlUla and Khaybar on numerous occasions, but this was a first for me. The journey from Tayma in modern times can take 4-5 hrs, depending on which route, but could have taken weeks, thousands of years ago.
The road covers flat open desert, crosses black lava fields and traverses’ mountains.
The oases town of AlHa’it is not unlike Khaybar in many respects, with palm gardens circled by mud brick walls, surrounded by towering groups of buildings.
Unlike other oases in the area though, it seems it was a centre of religious worship.
It is here I finally met Nabonidus himself in the form of a rock relief (the image sits proud of its surrounds instead of being carved out).
Set on a very large stone, overlooking the oasis it is thought it could have been the wall of a monumental building, maybe a temple of some sort.
On the left stands Nabonidus with his iconic robes and staff, above to the right I again see his divine symbols of the moon, winged disc and sun, all typical of Nabonidus.
Cuneiform writing covers a large area but is well worn away in most sections. In the middle however can still be read ‘Nabonidus king of Babylon’, and lower down, ‘Sin, king of the gods’.
Set on a very large stone, overlooking the oasis it is thought it could have been the wall of a monumental building, maybe a temple of some sort.
On the left stands Nabonidus with his iconic robes and staff, above to the right I again see his divine symbols of the moon, winged disc and sun, all typical of Nabonidus.
Cuneiform writing covers a large area but is well worn away in most sections. In the middle however can still be read ‘Nabonidus king of Babylon’, and lower down, ‘Sin, king of the gods’.
The most exciting part is the highly unusual section at the top. A big chip has been taken out of the stone along the top edge. Above the sun image there remains a U shape, indicating that there was something else above the other symbols too, but it has been removed.
Hausleiter (2016), concluded that these symbols may have contained reference to local, indigenous deities whose city and temple, Nabonidus carved his own symbols upon.
The positioning of these local symbols above the Babylonian ones gives the impression of a mixing of icons and ideas. If only we knew what was missing. Everything here points towards a man wishing to unite his own and the local gods.
In terms of representations of Nabonidus, to include local deities, expressing respect towards them it is unique…. Or so I thought.
Hausleiter (2016), concluded that these symbols may have contained reference to local, indigenous deities whose city and temple, Nabonidus carved his own symbols upon.
The positioning of these local symbols above the Babylonian ones gives the impression of a mixing of icons and ideas. If only we knew what was missing. Everything here points towards a man wishing to unite his own and the local gods.
In terms of representations of Nabonidus, to include local deities, expressing respect towards them it is unique…. Or so I thought.
On the way out of the secured area where the rock relief sits, I see the remains of a solid wall, which adds more weight to the theory of this having been a special building of some sort.
At the other side of the oasis, almost at the top of a long flight of steps leading to a grand house on top of the rocks, sits yet another rock relief.
Yes, there are TWO! How could things get more exciting! This time Nabonidus’ image is on the right, facing to the left.
All the iconic elements are present, robe, staff, moon, winged disc and star. But this time there’s an additional carving. Next to the star is a snake-like shape that curves upwards.
The bottom section is just like the U shape we saw on the first relief. My mind is buzzing with these new ideas. Was Nabonidus looking to connect with the local gods? It certainly looks that way to me.
Yes, there are TWO! How could things get more exciting! This time Nabonidus’ image is on the right, facing to the left.
All the iconic elements are present, robe, staff, moon, winged disc and star. But this time there’s an additional carving. Next to the star is a snake-like shape that curves upwards.
The bottom section is just like the U shape we saw on the first relief. My mind is buzzing with these new ideas. Was Nabonidus looking to connect with the local gods? It certainly looks that way to me.
It seems reasonable to me that Nabonidus used Tayma as his main base. It sits in a wide-open flat expanse which would have been easy to defend, unlike the other oases. It was also the center of religious worship of Salm, which according to the cube found in the temple, seems to have been blended with his own gods in some way.
The unusual addition of the extra local deities to his reliefs in AlHa’it, adds greater weight to the theory of a blending of the gods. Perhaps this was a man searching for religious solace and acceptance.
I’m sure he must have travelled between the oases, but probably more some than others, with Faddak (AlHa’it) being top of the list. Having travelled the area myself I can imagine it would have taken considerable time and effort to get between them 2,500 years ago. Why did he stay for so long without going back to Babylon? Well, he could have quite simply liked living in the area.
And finally the Salm rock drawing I saw in the desert. I believe whoever created this inscription also worshiped in the Ancient Temple of Salm. They stared at the cube for many hours, committing it to memory.
This enabled them to recreate it exactly, for all travellers passing by to see, making a very clear statement – Salm is adored by the priests of the temple. Being the only one of its kind found so far (with the additional symbols either side), I consider myself very lucky to have witness these ancient clues for myself, adding to the understanding of Tayma’s own special deity and its possible links to the divine gods that Nabonidus revered so much.
The unusual addition of the extra local deities to his reliefs in AlHa’it, adds greater weight to the theory of a blending of the gods. Perhaps this was a man searching for religious solace and acceptance.
I’m sure he must have travelled between the oases, but probably more some than others, with Faddak (AlHa’it) being top of the list. Having travelled the area myself I can imagine it would have taken considerable time and effort to get between them 2,500 years ago. Why did he stay for so long without going back to Babylon? Well, he could have quite simply liked living in the area.
And finally the Salm rock drawing I saw in the desert. I believe whoever created this inscription also worshiped in the Ancient Temple of Salm. They stared at the cube for many hours, committing it to memory.
This enabled them to recreate it exactly, for all travellers passing by to see, making a very clear statement – Salm is adored by the priests of the temple. Being the only one of its kind found so far (with the additional symbols either side), I consider myself very lucky to have witness these ancient clues for myself, adding to the understanding of Tayma’s own special deity and its possible links to the divine gods that Nabonidus revered so much.
Sheila Russell Frgs | Date:20 Apr 2023
Sheila Russell Frgs
Sheila Russell is a modern explorer who has spent the last 5 years documenting the history, culture, traditions and natural beauty in Saudi Arabia through storytelling and photography. She is a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society in London and has featured in numerous CNN Arabic articles.
Follow her on Instagram@SaudiTravelNotes
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