WATER: THE ESSENCE OF CULTURE
We all know that water is a biological necessity, but its importance goes far beyond that. The ability to find, move, and safely use water is fundamental to those intangible aspects of humanity that set us apart from the rest of the natural world, such as art, literature, science and innovation. Without it, the cultural landscape of our lives would be very different.
Nowhere is this connection between water and the growth of culture more vividly illustrated than in the sophisticated civilisations which evolved around the great oases of Tayma, Khaybar and AlUla.
Writer Simon Talbot takes a look at this fascinating ancient relationship.
Nowhere is this connection between water and the growth of culture more vividly illustrated than in the sophisticated civilisations which evolved around the great oases of Tayma, Khaybar and AlUla.
Writer Simon Talbot takes a look at this fascinating ancient relationship.
Every human society shares a powerful and intimate relationship with water. Two-thirds of the human body is made up of it, we drink it, wash with it and cook with it – it’s even in most of the food we eat. For our ancestors water was, for centuries, the most effective form of transport, defence and mechanical power.
The presence of water allowed communities to establish permanent settlements and this stability supported the evolution of new technology and ideas – would the great achievements of Egypt and Rome have been possible if they had not grown around the banks of the Nile and the Tiber respectively?
Water has also provided inspiration; feeding hearts and minds and becoming an integral part of belief systems. By nurturing the human imagination, it has been directly responsible for the creation of poetry, literature, art, and music.
The presence of water allowed communities to establish permanent settlements and this stability supported the evolution of new technology and ideas – would the great achievements of Egypt and Rome have been possible if they had not grown around the banks of the Nile and the Tiber respectively?
Water has also provided inspiration; feeding hearts and minds and becoming an integral part of belief systems. By nurturing the human imagination, it has been directly responsible for the creation of poetry, literature, art, and music.
A Transformed Landscape
A Transformed Landscape
Around six thousand years ago, during the 4th millennium BCE, Arabia entered a period of rapid climate change. Once verdant savannah became a barren desert as annual rainfall dramatically decreased and water sources disappeared.
One thousand years later, at Tayma in north-western Saudi Arabia, a thriving community had grown up along the banks of an already shrinking freshwater lake.
There is archaeological evidence suggesting the development of crop farming, jewellery manufacture and possibly trade networks.
As the marshlands around which they lived dried into a barren salt-encrusted stretch of land known as a ‘sabkha,’ Tayma’s human inhabitants were faced with some particularly serious challenges.
How they faced these challenges, discovered new sources of water, nurtured an oasis and grew into a sophisticated civilisation is a part of Arabia’s remarkable history.
It’s a story of innovation and water management echoed at the historic sites of Khaybar and AlUla.
There is archaeological evidence suggesting the development of crop farming, jewellery manufacture and possibly trade networks.
As the marshlands around which they lived dried into a barren salt-encrusted stretch of land known as a ‘sabkha,’ Tayma’s human inhabitants were faced with some particularly serious challenges.
How they faced these challenges, discovered new sources of water, nurtured an oasis and grew into a sophisticated civilisation is a part of Arabia’s remarkable history.
It’s a story of innovation and water management echoed at the historic sites of Khaybar and AlUla.
Sources of Water in the Desert
In the absence of permanent freshwater rivers and lakes (surface water) and with no regular rainfall, finding sources of water in the desert is difficult, but not impossible – if you know where to look! The most common supply comes from groundwater. This is water that sits in natural reservoirs below the surface of the earth, in soil pore spaces or between rock formations. This water is sometimes so deep below the ground that it is inaccessible – unless it is surrounded by a layer of permeable rock known as an aquifer.
Permeable rock allows liquid to pass through and seep upward towards the surface, where it can exit naturally as a spring or be accessed by man-made water wells.
The oasis of Tayma was fed by just such an aquifer, in fact, one of its most famous landmarks is the ancient well of Bir Haddaj – which was said to never run dry and is still in use today.
Many aquifers are fed from rainfall flowing down from higher ground, such as mountain ranges, hills, and plateaus.
Rainwater flows down natural channels called watercourses or if the rock is permeable (such as volcanic basalt) directly through the mountainside. It continues down through the earth into the aquifer – keeping supplies stocked up until the next rainy season.
The lush oasis of Khaybar had much of its water supplied by torrential rain flowing down the steep slopes of a basalt lava field known as Harrat Khaybar.
Rainwater, particularly heavy rain, can also fill up seasonably dry riverbeds known as wadis. These are usually located on gently sloping flat areas of land, often in a valley. Occasionally they are the beds of ‘ephemeral rivers’ which only contain water after heavy rainfall.
The oasis of Tayma was fed by just such an aquifer, in fact, one of its most famous landmarks is the ancient well of Bir Haddaj – which was said to never run dry and is still in use today.
Many aquifers are fed from rainfall flowing down from higher ground, such as mountain ranges, hills, and plateaus.
Rainwater flows down natural channels called watercourses or if the rock is permeable (such as volcanic basalt) directly through the mountainside. It continues down through the earth into the aquifer – keeping supplies stocked up until the next rainy season.
The lush oasis of Khaybar had much of its water supplied by torrential rain flowing down the steep slopes of a basalt lava field known as Harrat Khaybar.
Rainwater, particularly heavy rain, can also fill up seasonably dry riverbeds known as wadis. These are usually located on gently sloping flat areas of land, often in a valley. Occasionally they are the beds of ‘ephemeral rivers’ which only contain water after heavy rainfall.
Full wadis can provide additional irrigation to nearby farmland, or they can overflow into destructive floods.
AlUla is known as a ‘river valley oasis.’ Much of the rainwater responsible for its existence flows down from the eastern slopes of another lava field known as Harrat Uwayrid. It then passes through underground watercourses and along a series of valleys into the drainage area of a sizable wadi.
The plain upon which AlUla sits hides a sandstone aquifer beneath its surface in which this water becomes stored. Because sandstone is porous, the water stored here is accessible to local inhabitants – without it, the oasis and everything its success has created would not exist.
AlUla is known as a ‘river valley oasis.’ Much of the rainwater responsible for its existence flows down from the eastern slopes of another lava field known as Harrat Uwayrid. It then passes through underground watercourses and along a series of valleys into the drainage area of a sizable wadi.
The plain upon which AlUla sits hides a sandstone aquifer beneath its surface in which this water becomes stored. Because sandstone is porous, the water stored here is accessible to local inhabitants – without it, the oasis and everything its success has created would not exist.
How Did Ancient Desert Civilisations Capture And Manage Water?
Wells
It is easy to be complacent about the well – after all, it’s just a hole in the ground with water at the bottom – but for human development, particularly in arid climates, it was a world-changing technology.
The oldest known wells in the world date back to the early Neolithic period – between twelve and nine thousand years ago – and represent the earliest examples of humans using technological innovation to access groundwater.
This meant that social groups could move away from freshwater rivers and lakes and spread out across wider areas of land – including deserts. They could irrigate crops, water livestock and, essential for the development of culture, permanently settle in one place.
Digging and maintaining a well requires no huge labour force or technical investments, so small, resource-poor communities could benefit from them relatively easily.
At AlUla, the earliest evidence of wells comes from the city of Dadan. An Iron Age well dating back three thousand years was discovered next to a water cistern – it is believed that the well water was used to keep the cistern filled.
The upper part of the well shaft was lined with sandstone blocks, while a series of steps were cut into the side of the cistern to allow access to the water at the bottom.
But it was the Nabataeans who took well digging to another level.
The oldest known wells in the world date back to the early Neolithic period – between twelve and nine thousand years ago – and represent the earliest examples of humans using technological innovation to access groundwater.
This meant that social groups could move away from freshwater rivers and lakes and spread out across wider areas of land – including deserts. They could irrigate crops, water livestock and, essential for the development of culture, permanently settle in one place.
Digging and maintaining a well requires no huge labour force or technical investments, so small, resource-poor communities could benefit from them relatively easily.
At AlUla, the earliest evidence of wells comes from the city of Dadan. An Iron Age well dating back three thousand years was discovered next to a water cistern – it is believed that the well water was used to keep the cistern filled.
The upper part of the well shaft was lined with sandstone blocks, while a series of steps were cut into the side of the cistern to allow access to the water at the bottom.
But it was the Nabataeans who took well digging to another level.
Over one hundred and thirty of them have been discovered so far around twenty kilometres north of AlUla Old Town at the city of Hegra.
In general, Nabataean wells tended to be deeper – as low as seventeen meters – and have larger diameters than those of other civilisations.
The reason for this was possibly twofold.
Deeper wells could access much deeper sources of groundwater, and wider ones could store much greater volumes of rain or flood water. Often, Nabataean wells were a combination of water source and storage cistern, with some of them holding supplies for up to a year.
Whether it was drawn from the ground or fell from the sky, the Nabataeans’ extraordinary management of well water meant that permanent settlements could flourish even in a harsh and unforgiving landscape.
In general, Nabataean wells tended to be deeper – as low as seventeen meters – and have larger diameters than those of other civilisations.
The reason for this was possibly twofold.
Deeper wells could access much deeper sources of groundwater, and wider ones could store much greater volumes of rain or flood water. Often, Nabataean wells were a combination of water source and storage cistern, with some of them holding supplies for up to a year.
Whether it was drawn from the ground or fell from the sky, the Nabataeans’ extraordinary management of well water meant that permanent settlements could flourish even in a harsh and unforgiving landscape.
Dams
The dam is another deceptively simple example of water technology. It’s a barrier built across the width of a river, to prevent water from flowing and therefore create a large surface reservoir.
In the Arabian Peninsula, dams were mostly built across wadis and were used to capture heavy seasonal rainfall. Most appear to have been built to aid agriculture by supplying irrigation systems.
The landscape around the oasis of Khaybar contains several ancient dams that were used in this way, including the famous Sadd Al-Bint – a sophisticated example of ancient hydro-technology thirty meters high and one hundred and thirty meters long, which is believed to date back three thousand years.
Dams served a dual purpose in that they collected a rare and precious resource while also preventing damaging floods.
Unlike wells, however, the construction of each dam required a large disciplined labour force, substantial financial resources and a centralised system of authority.
It also needed a sophisticated and thorough knowledge of local geography, construction techniques and irrigation processes – all part of developing a scientifically advanced society.
Dam construction reflects the creation of so-called ‘hydro-states’, centrally organised regional groups whose political, financial and military power stemmed directly from their ability to harness water.
Dams served a dual purpose in that they collected a rare and precious resource while also preventing damaging floods.
Unlike wells, however, the construction of each dam required a large disciplined labour force, substantial financial resources and a centralised system of authority.
It also needed a sophisticated and thorough knowledge of local geography, construction techniques and irrigation processes – all part of developing a scientifically advanced society.
Dam construction reflects the creation of so-called ‘hydro-states’, centrally organised regional groups whose political, financial and military power stemmed directly from their ability to harness water.
Floodwater Diversion
Diverting seasonal floodwater so that it flows past occupied areas and into a single or series of collection points, often involves building retaining walls and directional canals. It is a form of water technology that dates back to at least the Bronze Age and was primarily used as a form of irrigation.
In AlUla, a possible example of this is the so-called Khief al-Zahrah. This Iron Age structure was built at the point at which the AlUla valley narrows.
It is believed that the wall not only protected the valley’s human settlements, but also channelled the water towards a pair of canals running alongside the cliff on either side of the valley. The water would then be used to irrigate farmland to the west.
It is believed that the wall not only protected the valley’s human settlements, but also channelled the water towards a pair of canals running alongside the cliff on either side of the valley. The water would then be used to irrigate farmland to the west.
Canals
In the Arabian Peninsula, canals were used to transport water from one site to another, either as a method of supplying reservoirs or to distribute water to farmland irrigation systems where it could be used to feed crops.
Public canals had
Public canals had sides lined with either earth or stone blocks, and occasionally ran through tunnels underneath the streets of urban centres.
The difference between canals and water channels in AlUla and many of their counterparts elsewhere in Arabia was that, unlike most Arabian canals which ran along the edges of farmland, AlUla canals often ran straight across each plot.
Plot walls had a small opening in them to let the canals through, and each farmer controlled access to his supply using a series of sluices.
The canals ran across private land, to ensure that the public still had access to water for drinking and washing, communal outlets or hammams were built at specific points outside the walls.
The difference between canals and water channels in AlUla and many of their counterparts elsewhere in Arabia was that, unlike most Arabian canals which ran along the edges of farmland, AlUla canals often ran straight across each plot.
Plot walls had a small opening in them to let the canals through, and each farmer controlled access to his supply using a series of sluices.
The canals ran across private land, to ensure that the public still had access to water for drinking and washing, communal outlets or hammams were built at specific points outside the walls.
Cisterns
The storage of large volumes of water was essential to growing communities. The construction of cisterns or man-made holding tanks was another early example of water technology.
At the ancient site of Dadan, archaeologists have discovered a huge circular sandstone basin capable of holding up to twenty-seven thousand litres of rainwater or floodwater.
Over three meters in diameter and two meters deep, the bottom of the basin was accessed by an internal staircase.
A cistern dating from the later Nabataean period was found in a small valley at Hegra, to the west of Jabal Ithlib.
Just over four meters deep, it was fed by two small canals and water was drawn from it using buckets hauled up to the opening by rope.
Over three meters in diameter and two meters deep, the bottom of the basin was accessed by an internal staircase.
A cistern dating from the later Nabataean period was found in a small valley at Hegra, to the west of Jabal Ithlib.
Just over four meters deep, it was fed by two small canals and water was drawn from it using buckets hauled up to the opening by rope.
Some scholars believe that this relatively small cistern was used as part of ceremonial behaviour – perhaps the water it contained was consumed during ritual banquets or used for washing following a sacrifice or feast. It certainly displays an advanced use of hydro technology by the Nabataeans and hints at other ways in which water played a vital role in the development of advanced cultures.
Qanats
Perhaps the most sophisticated example of water management seen in the Arabian Peninsula, and one that was in use from ancient periods to the 13th century CE and beyond, is the qanat. Based on the universal observations that ‘water flows downhill’ and ‘finds its own level’, qanats are underground channels which run along a gentle slope.
They collect water from a central source – usually an alluvial fan, into which a main well is dug. The well water flows down the tunnel using gravity and exits at a point below the level at which it started, where it can be collected or redistributed.
They collect water from a central source – usually an alluvial fan, into which a main well is dug. The well water flows down the tunnel using gravity and exits at a point below the level at which it started, where it can be collected or redistributed.
In particularly arid climates, one of the advantages of a qanat is that water is not subject to as much evaporation as it would be if it flowed across the surface.
Secondary well shafts were dug along a qanat’s length to enable the removal of debris. They also allowed ventilation for teams of specialist workers who regularly entered it through special maintenance tunnels to keep the water flowing smoothly.
Qanats are extremely impressive examples of scientific calculation, hydro-technical expertise and disciplined physical activity.
Although they are thought to have originated around five thousand years ago in what is now Iran, qanat technology is believed to have first been implemented in south-eastern Arabia around the 1st millennium BCE.
Like dams, the planning, construction and maintenance of qanats require a high level of resource and social organisation.
During the Islamic period, from around the 7th century CE, networks of qanats were built throughout AlUla.
The whole valley floor was reshaped, and multiple terraces were dug to allow gravity irrigation. The ground levels of some areas of farmland were lowered, so they would be able to benefit from the qanats’ water supply – an immense task requiring the removal of tonnes of earth and weeks of back-breaking labour.
Qanat construction at AlUla reached its peak between the 13th and 18th centuries CE, and they often feature in the accounts of travellers passing through the region.
During that time, the Arab world shared this technology with North Africa, Cyprus, Spain, and Sicily; from Spain, it even made its way to South America.
So effective were the qanats of AlUla that some networks remained in use until the 1980s.
Secondary well shafts were dug along a qanat’s length to enable the removal of debris. They also allowed ventilation for teams of specialist workers who regularly entered it through special maintenance tunnels to keep the water flowing smoothly.
Qanats are extremely impressive examples of scientific calculation, hydro-technical expertise and disciplined physical activity.
Although they are thought to have originated around five thousand years ago in what is now Iran, qanat technology is believed to have first been implemented in south-eastern Arabia around the 1st millennium BCE.
Like dams, the planning, construction and maintenance of qanats require a high level of resource and social organisation.
During the Islamic period, from around the 7th century CE, networks of qanats were built throughout AlUla.
The whole valley floor was reshaped, and multiple terraces were dug to allow gravity irrigation. The ground levels of some areas of farmland were lowered, so they would be able to benefit from the qanats’ water supply – an immense task requiring the removal of tonnes of earth and weeks of back-breaking labour.
Qanat construction at AlUla reached its peak between the 13th and 18th centuries CE, and they often feature in the accounts of travellers passing through the region.
During that time, the Arab world shared this technology with North Africa, Cyprus, Spain, and Sicily; from Spain, it even made its way to South America.
So effective were the qanats of AlUla that some networks remained in use until the 1980s.
Technology
Examples of innovative hydro-technology can be found throughout the ancient world.
The Ancient Greeks used water-powered stone wheels to grind wheat into flour, improving food production and population growth. It is believed that the Hydraulic Wheel of Perachora was developed around 300 BCE.
The Ancient Greeks used water-powered stone wheels to grind wheat into flour, improving food production and population growth. It is believed that the Hydraulic Wheel of Perachora was developed around 300 BCE.
The Egyptians developed what is believed to have been one of the earliest water purification systems in history when they added aluminium sulphate – or alum – to earthenware jars of muddy water.
The alum reacted with bicarbonate alkalinities in the water and caused sediment and other floating particles to clump together and sink to the bottom – the water above this level was therefore clean.
Over two thousand years ago, In what is now Guatemala, the Mayan city of Tikal stored water in huge reservoirs. This not only enabled them to survive periods of low rainfall, but by filtering the water through locally-sourced crystalline quartz and zeolite, the Mayans removed a lot of potentially harmful bacteria.
The Romans, of course, were famous for their water-transporting aqueducts, but they also used water as part of the Cloaca Maxima – one of the most sophisticated sewage systems of the ancient world.
Hygiene and disease prevention was just as important as drinking water in the development of successful civilisations.
The water technology of the inhabitants of AlUla stands alongside all of these innovations.
The alum reacted with bicarbonate alkalinities in the water and caused sediment and other floating particles to clump together and sink to the bottom – the water above this level was therefore clean.
Over two thousand years ago, In what is now Guatemala, the Mayan city of Tikal stored water in huge reservoirs. This not only enabled them to survive periods of low rainfall, but by filtering the water through locally-sourced crystalline quartz and zeolite, the Mayans removed a lot of potentially harmful bacteria.
The Romans, of course, were famous for their water-transporting aqueducts, but they also used water as part of the Cloaca Maxima – one of the most sophisticated sewage systems of the ancient world.
Hygiene and disease prevention was just as important as drinking water in the development of successful civilisations.
The water technology of the inhabitants of AlUla stands alongside all of these innovations.
Water as an Engine of Cultural Heritage
Culture develops over time, it requires a level of social stability, population growth and security – the presence of water contributes considerably to all three.
In AlUla, the ancient civilisations of the Dadanites, Lihyanites and the Nabataeans experienced similar water-supported growth, only around the desert oases of Tayma, Khaybar and AlUla.
The Islamic kingdoms of the Arabian Peninsula that flourished following the decline of the Roman Empire were just as indebted to water as their predecessors, further developing hydraulic systems of irrigation and water management.
Water became a symbol of purity, wisdom and generosity – “the drink that quenches the soul’s thirst” – inspiring art, literature and poetry.
The challenges presented in finding, accessing and managing water, particularly in arid climates, inspired ancient communities to make enormous technological advances.
From simple wells to complex qanats, the determination and skill of these long forgotten hydro-technicians continues to inspire us today.
Without the techniques and expertise they developed, mighty civilisations would never have flourished and much of the culture that continues to enrich our lives may never have had the conditions in which to grow.
In the 21st century, access to clean water for health, economic growth and environmental sustainability remains, for many, an ongoing challenge.
Perhaps we can look to the wisdom of the ancients at places like AlUla in addressing this challenge as we move into the cultural landscape of the future.
The Islamic kingdoms of the Arabian Peninsula that flourished following the decline of the Roman Empire were just as indebted to water as their predecessors, further developing hydraulic systems of irrigation and water management.
Water became a symbol of purity, wisdom and generosity – “the drink that quenches the soul’s thirst” – inspiring art, literature and poetry.
The challenges presented in finding, accessing and managing water, particularly in arid climates, inspired ancient communities to make enormous technological advances.
From simple wells to complex qanats, the determination and skill of these long forgotten hydro-technicians continues to inspire us today.
Without the techniques and expertise they developed, mighty civilisations would never have flourished and much of the culture that continues to enrich our lives may never have had the conditions in which to grow.
In the 21st century, access to clean water for health, economic growth and environmental sustainability remains, for many, an ongoing challenge.
Perhaps we can look to the wisdom of the ancients at places like AlUla in addressing this challenge as we move into the cultural landscape of the future.
Simon Talbot | Date:17 May 2023
Simon Talbot
Simon Talbot is a writer, broadcaster and podcast host who has been sharing his enthusiasm for history and culture since 2007. His words have guided visitors around some of the most prestigious museums, art galleries and historic sites in the world and his voice has been heard on BBC radio. He lives in the East of England and likes castles.
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